C -

Getting Started

hello.c

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {
  printf("Hello World!\n");

  return 0;
}

Compile hello.c file with gcc

$ gcc hello.c -o hello

Run the compiled binary hello

$ ./hello

Output => Hello World!

Variables

int myNum = 15;

int myNum2; // do not assign, then assign
myNum2 = 15;

int myNum3 = 15; // myNum3 is 15
myNum3 = 10;     // myNum3 is now 10

float myFloat = 5.99; // floating point number
char myLetter = 'D';  // character

int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int sum = x + y; // add variables to sum

// declare multiple variables
int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;

Constants

const int minutesPerHour = 60;
const float PI = 3.14;

Best Practices

const int BIRTHYEAR = 1980;

Comment

// this is a comment
printf("Hello World!"); // Can comment anywhere in file

/*Multi-line comment, print Hello World!
to the screen, it's awesome */

Print text

printf("I am learning C.");
int testInteger = 5;
printf("Number = %d", testInteger);

float f = 5.99; // floating point number
printf("Value = %f", f);

short a = 0b1010110; // binary number
int b = 02713; // octal number
long c = 0X1DAB83; // hexadecimal number

// output in octal form
printf("a=%ho, b=%o, c=%lo\n", a, b, c);
// output => a=126, b=2713, c=7325603

// Output in decimal form
printf("a=%hd, b=%d, c=%ld\n", a, b, c);
// output => a=86, b=1483, c=1944451

// output in hexadecimal form (letter lowercase)
printf("a=%hx, b=%x, c=%lx\n", a, b, c);
// output => a=56, b=5cb, c=1dab83

// Output in hexadecimal (capital letters)
printf("a=%hX, b=%X, c=%lX\n", a, b, c);
// output => a=56, b=5CB, c=1DAB83

Control the number of spaces

int a1 = 20, a2 = 345, a3 = 700;
int b1 = 56720, b2 = 9999, b3 = 20098;
int c1 = 233, c2 = 205, c3 = 1;
int d1 = 34, d2 = 0, d3 = 23;

printf("%-9d %-9d %-9d\n", a1, a2, a3);
printf("%-9d %-9d %-9d\n", b1, b2, b3);
printf("%-9d %-9d %-9d\n", c1, c2, c3);
printf("%-9d %-9d %-9d\n", d1, d2, d3);

output result

20        345       700      
56720     9999      20098    
233       205       1        
34        0         23

In %-9d, d means to output in 10 base, 9 means to occupy at least 9 characters width, and the width is not enough to fill with spaces, - means left alignment

Strings

char greetings[] = "Hello World!";
printf("%s", greetings);

access string

char greetings[] = "Hello World!";
printf("%c", greetings[0]);

modify string

char greetings[] = "Hello World!";
greetings[0] = 'J';

printf("%s", greetings);
// prints "Jello World!"

Another way to create a string

char greetings[] = {'H','e','l','l','\0'};

printf("%s", greetings);
// print "Hell!"

Creating String using character pointer (String Literals)

char *greetings = "Hello";
printf("%s", greetings);
// print "Hello!"

NOTE: String literals might be stored in read-only section of memory. Modifying a string literal invokes undefined behavior. You can’t modify it.!

C does not have a String type, use char type and create an array of characters

Condition

int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
  printf("Goodbye!");
} else {
  printf("Good evening!");
}
// Output -> "Good evening!"
int time = 22;
if (time < 10) {
  printf("Good morning!");
} else if (time < 20) {
  printf("Goodbye!");
} else {
  printf("Good evening!");
}
// Output -> "Good evening!"

Ternary operator

int age = 20;
(age > 19) ? printf("Adult") : printf("Teenager");

Switch

int day = 4;

switch (day) {
  case 3: printf("Wednesday"); break;
  case 4: printf("Thursday"); break;
  default:
    printf("Weekend!");
}
// output -> "Thursday" (day 4)

While Loop

int i = 0;

while (i < 5) {
  printf("%d\n", i);
  i++;
}

NOTE: Don’t forget to increment the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end and become an “infinite loop”!

Do/While Loop

int i = 0;

do {
  printf("%d\n", i);
  i++;
} while (i < 5);

For Loop

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
  printf("%d\n", i);
}

Break out of the loop Break/Continue

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
  if (i == 4) {
    break;
  }
  printf("%d\n", i);
}

break out of the loop when i is equal to 4

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
  if (i == 4) {
    continue;
  }
  printf("%d\n", i);
}

Example to skip the value of 4

While Break Example

int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {
  if (i == 4) {
    break;
  }
  printf("%d\n", i);

  i++;
}

While continue example

int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {
  i++;

  if (i == 4) {
    continue;
  }
  printf("%d\n", i);
}

Arrays

int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};

printf("%d", myNumbers[0]);
// output 25

change array elements

int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};
myNumbers[0] = 33;

printf("%d", myNumbers[0]);

Loop through the array

int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
  printf("%d\n", myNumbers[i]);
}

set array size

// Declare an array of four integers:
int myNumbers[4];

// add element
myNumbers[0] = 25;
myNumbers[1] = 50;
myNumbers[2] = 75;
myNumbers[3] = 100;

Enumeration Enum

enum week { Mon = 1, Tues, Wed, Thurs, Fri, Sat, Sun };

define enum variable

enum week a, b, c;
enum week { Mon = 1, Tues, Wed, Thurs, Fri, Sat, Sun } a, b, c;

With an enumeration variable, you can assign the value in the list to it

enum week { Mon = 1, Tues, Wed, Thurs, Fri, Sat, Sun };
enum week a = Mon, b = Wed, c = Sat;
// or
enum week{ Mon = 1, Tues, Wed, Thurs, Fri, Sat, Sun } a = Mon, b = Wed, c = Sat;

Enumerate sample applications

enum week {Mon = 1, Tues, Wed, Thurs} day;

scanf("%d", &day);

switch(day) {
  case Mon: puts("Monday"); break;
  case Tues: puts("Tuesday"); break;
  case Wed: puts("Wednesday"); break;
  case Thursday: puts("Thursday"); break;
  default: puts("Error!");
}

User input

// Create an integer variable to store the number we got from the user
int myNum;

// Ask the user to enter a number
printf("Please enter a number: \n");

// Get and save the number entered by the user
scanf("%d", &myNum);

// Output the number entered by the user
printf("The number you entered: %d", myNum);

User input string

// create a string
char firstName[30];
// Ask the user to enter some text
printf("Enter your name: \n");
// get and save the text
scanf("%s", &firstName);
// output text
printf("Hello %s.", firstName);

memory address

When a variable is created, it is assigned a memory address

int myAge = 43;

printf("%p", &myAge);
// Output: 0x7ffe5367e044

To access it, use the reference operator (&)

create pointer

int myAge = 43; // an int variable
printf("%d", myAge); // output the value of myAge(43)

// Output the memory address of myAge (0x7ffe5367e044)
printf("%p", &myAge);

pointer variable

int myAge = 43; // an int variable
int*ptr = &myAge; // pointer variable named ptr, used to store the address of myAge

printf("%d\n", myAge); // print the value of myAge (43)

printf("%p\n", &myAge); // output the memory address of myAge (0x7ffe5367e044)
printf("%p\n", ptr); // use the pointer (0x7ffe5367e044) to output the memory address of myAge

Dereference

int myAge = 43; // variable declaration
int*ptr = &myAge; // pointer declaration

// Reference: output myAge with a pointer
// memory address (0x7ffe5367e044)
printf("%p\n", ptr);
// dereference: output the value of myAge with a pointer (43)
printf("%d\n", *ptr);

Operators

Arithmetic Operators

int myNum = 100 + 50;
int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)
int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)

Operator	Name	Example
`+`	Add	`x + y`
`-`	Subtract	`x - y`
`*`	Multiply	`x * y`
`/`	Divide	`x / y`
`%`	Modulo	`x % y`
`++`	Increment	`++x`
`--`	Decrement	`--x`

Assignment operator

example	as
x `=` 5	x `=` 5
x `+=` 3	x `=` x `+` 3
x `-=` 3	x `=` x `-` 3
x `*=` 3	x `=` x `*` 3
x `/=` 3	x `=` x `/` 3
x `%=` 3	x `=` x `%` 3
x `&=` 3	x `=` x `&` 3
x `	=` 3
x `^=` 3	x `=` x `^` 3
x `>>=` 3	x `=` x `>>` 3
x `<<=` 3	x `=` x `<<` 3

Comparison Operators

int x = 5;
int y = 3;

printf("%d", x > y);
// returns 1 (true) because 5 is greater than 3

Symbol	Name	Example
`==`	equals	x `==` y
`!=`	not equal to	x `!=` y
`>`	greater than	x `>` y
`<`	less than	x `<` y
`>=`	greater than or equal to	x `>=` y
`<=`	less than or equal to	x `<=` y

Comparison operators are used to compare two values

Logical Operators

Symbol	Name	Description	Example
`&&`	`and` logical	returns true if both statements are true	`x < 5 && x < 10`
`		`	`or` logical
`!`	`not` logical	Invert result, return false if true	`!(x < 5 && x < 10)`

Operator Examples

unsigned int a = 60; /*60 = 0011 1100 */
unsigned int b = 13; /*13 = 0000 1101 */
int c = 0;

c = a & b; /*12 = 0000 1100 */
printf("Line 1 -the value of c is %d\n", c);

c = a | b; /*61 = 0011 1101 */
printf("Line 2 -the value of c is %d\n", c);
c = a ^ b; /*49 = 0011 0001 */
printf("Line 3 -the value of c is %d\n", c);
c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */
printf("Line 4 -The value of c is %d\n", c);
c = a << 2; /*240 = 1111 0000 */
printf("Line 5 -the value of c is %d\n", c);
c = a >> 2; /*15 = 0000 1111 */
printf("Line 6 -The value of c is %d\n", c);

Bitwise operators

operator	description	instance
`&`	Bitwise AND operation, “AND” operation by binary digits	`(A & B)` will get `12` which is 0000 1100
`	`	Bitwise OR operator, “or” operation by binary digit
`^`	XOR operator, perform “XOR” operation by binary digits	`(A ^ B)` will get `49` which is 0011 0001
`~`	Inversion operator, perform “inversion” operation by binary bit	`(~A)` will get `-61` which is 1100 0011
`<<`	binary left shift operator	`A << 2` will get `240` which is 1111 0000
`>>`	binary right shift operator	`A >> 2` will get `15` which is 0000 1111

Data Types

Basic data types

Data Type	Size Size	Range Range	Description Description
`char`	1 byte	`−128` ~ `127`	single character/alphanumeric/ASCII
`signed char`	1 byte	`−128` ~ `127`	-
`unsigned char`	1 byte	`0` ~ `255`	-
`int`	`2` to `4` bytes	`−32,768` ~ `32,767`	store integers
`signed int`	2 bytes	`−32,768` ~ `32,767`
`unsigned int`	2 bytes	`0` ~ `65,535`
`short int`	2 bytes	`−32,768` ~ `32,767`
`signed short int`	2 bytes	`−32,768` ~ `32,767`
`unsigned short int`	2 bytes	`0` ~ `65,535`
`long int`	4 bytes	`-2,147,483,648` ~ `2,147,483,647`
`signed long int`	4 bytes	`-2,147,483,648` ~ `2,147,483,647`
`unsigned long int`	4 bytes	`0` ~ `4,294,967,295`
`float`	4 bytes	`3.4E-38` ~ `3.4E+38`
`double`	8 bytes	`1.7E-308` ~ `1.7E+308`
`long double`	10 bytes	`3.4E-4932` ~ `1.1E+4932`

Data types

// create variables
int myNum = 5; // integer
float myFloatNum = 5.99; // floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // string
// High precision floating point data or numbers
double myDouble = 3.2325467;
// print output variables
printf("%d\n", myNum);
printf("%f\n", myFloatNum);
printf("%c\n", myLetter);
printf("%lf\n", myDouble);

Data Type	Description
`char`	character type
`short`	short integer
`int`	integer type
`long`	long integer
`float`	single-precision floating-point type
`double`	double-precision floating-point type
`void`	no type

Basic format specifiers

format specifier	data type
`%d` or `%i`	`int` integer
`%f`	`float` single-precision decimal type
`%lf`	`double` high precision floating point data or number
`%c`	`char` character
`%s`	for `strings` strings

Basic format specifiers

	short	int	long
Octal	`%ho`	`%o`	`%lo`
Decimal	`%hd`	`%d`	`%ld`
Hexadecimal	`%hx` /`%hX`	`%x` /`%X`	`%lx` /`%lX`

Data format example

int myNum = 5;
float myFloatNum = 5.99; // floating point number
char myLetter = 'D';     // string
// print output variables
printf("%d\n", myNum);
printf("%f\n", myFloatNum);
printf("%c\n", myLetter);

C Preprocessor

Preprocessor Directives

command	description
`#define`	define a macro
`#include`	include a source code file
`#undef`	undefined macro
`#ifdef`	Returns true if the macro is defined
`#ifndef`	Returns true if the macro is not defined
`#if`	Compile the following code if the given condition is true
`#else`	Alternative to `#if`
`#elif`	If the `#if` condition is false, the current condition is `true`
`#endif`	End a `#if...#else` conditional compilation block
`#error`	Print an error message when standard error is encountered
`#pragma`	Issue special commands to the compiler using the standardized method

// replace all MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH with 20
#define MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH 20
// Get stdio.h from the system library
#include <stdio.h>
// Get myheader.h in the local directory
#include "myheader.h"
#undef FILE_SIZE
#define FILE_SIZE 42 // undefine and define to 42

Predefined macros

macro	description
`__DATE__`	The current date, a character constant in the format “MMM DD YYYY”
`__TIME__`	The current time, a character constant in the format “HH:MM:SS”
`__FILE__`	This will contain the current filename, a string constant
`__LINE__`	This will contain the current line number, a decimal constant
`__STDC__`	Defined as `1` when the compiler compiles against the `ANSI` standard

ANSI C defines a number of macros that you can use, but you cannot directly modify these predefined macros

Predefined macro example

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
  printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__);
  printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__);
  printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__);
  printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__);
  printf("ANSI :%d\n", __STDC__);
}

Macro continuation operator ()

A macro is usually written on a single line.

#define message_for(a, b) \
    printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")

If the macro is too long to fit on a single line, use the macro continuation operator \

String Constantization Operator (#)

#include <stdio.h>

#define message_for(a, b) \
  printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")

int main(void) {
  message_for(Carole, Debra);

  return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Carole and Debra: We love you!

When you need to convert a macro parameter to a string constant, use the string constant operator #

tag paste operator (##)

#include <stdio.h>

#define tokenpaster(n) printf ("token" #n " = %d", token##n)

int main(void) {
  int token34 = 40;
  tokenpaster(34);

  return 0;
}

defined() operator

#include <stdio.h>

#if !defined (MESSAGE)
   #define MESSAGE "You wish!"
#endif

int main(void) {
  printf("Here is the message: %s\n", MESSAGE);

  return 0;
}

Parameterized macros

int square(int x) {
  return x * x;
}

The macro rewrites the above code as follows:

#define square(x) ( (x) * (x) )

No spaces are allowed between the macro name and the opening parenthesis

#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX(x,y) ( (x) > (y) ? (x) : (y) )

int main(void) {
  printf("Max between 20 and 10 is %d\n", MAX(10, 20));

  return 0;
}

C Function

Function declaration and definition

int main(void) {
  printf("Hello World!");

  return 0;
}

The function consists of two parts

void myFunction() { // declaration declaration
  // function body (code to be executed) (definition)
}

Declaration declares the function name, return type and parameters (if any)
Definition function body (code to execute)

// function declaration
void myFunction();
// main method
int main() {
  myFunction(); // --> call the function

  return 0;
}

void myFunction() {// Function definition
  printf("Good evening!");
}

Call function

// create function
void myFunction() {
  printf("Good evening!");
}

int main() {
  myFunction(); // call the function
  myFunction(); // can be called multiple times

  return 0;
}
// Output -> "Good evening!"
// Output -> "Good evening!"

Function parameters

void myFunction(char name[]) {
  printf("Hello %s\n", name);
}

int main() {
  myFunction("Liam");
  myFunction("Jenny");

  return 0;
}
// Hello Liam
// Hello Jenny

Multiple parameters

void myFunction(char name[], int age) {
  printf("Hi %s, you are %d years old.\n",name,age);
}
int main() {
  myFunction("Liam", 3);
  myFunction("Jenny", 14);

  return 0;
}
// Hi Liam you are 3 years old.
// Hi Jenny you are 14 years old.

Return value

int myFunction(int x) {
  return 5 + x;
}

int main() {
  printf("Result: %d", myFunction(3));
  return 0;
}
// output 8 (5 + 3)

two parameters

int myFunction(int x, int y) {
  return x + y;
}

int main() {
  printf("Result: %d", myFunction(5, 3));
  // store the result in a variable
  int result = myFunction(5, 3);
  printf("Result = %d", result);

  return 0;
}
// result: 8 (5 + 3)
// result = 8 (5 + 3)

Recursive example

int sum(int k);

int main() {
  int result = sum(10);
  printf("%d", result);

  return 0;
}

int sum(int k) {
  if (k > 0) {
    return k + sum(k -1);
  } else {
    return 0;
  }
}

Mathematical functions

#include <math.h>

void main(void) {
  printf("%f", sqrt(16)); // square root
  printf("%f", ceil(1.4)); // round up (round)
  printf("%f", floor(1.4)); // round up (round)
  printf("%f", pow(4, 3)); // x(4) to the power of y(3)
}

abs(x) absolute value
acos(x) arc cosine value
asin(x) arc sine
atan(x) arc tangent
cbrt(x) cube root
cos(x) cosine
the value of exp(x) Ex
sin(x) the sine of x
tangent of tan(x) angle

C Structures

Create structure

struct MyStructure { // structure declaration
  int myNum; // member (int variable)
  char myLetter; // member (char variable)
}; // end the structure with a semicolon

Create a struct variable called s1

struct myStructure {
  int myNum;
  char myLetter;
};

int main() {
  struct myStructure s1;

  return 0;
}

Strings in the structure

struct myStructure {
  int myNum;
  char myLetter;
  char myString[30]; // String
};

int main() {
  struct myStructure s1;
  strcpy(s1. myString, "Some text");
  // print value
  printf("my string: %s", s1.myString);

  return 0;
}

Assigning values to strings using the strcpy function

Accessing structure members

// create a structure called myStructure
struct myStructure {
  int myNum;
  char myLetter;
};

int main() {
  // Create a structure variable called myStructure called s1
  struct myStructure s1;
  // Assign values to the members of s1
  s1.myNum = 13;
  s1.myLetter = 'B';

  // Create a structure variable of myStructure called s2
  // and assign it a value
  struct myStructure s2 = {13, 'B'};
  // print value
  printf("My number: %d\n", s1.myNum);
  printf("My letter: %c\n", s1.myLetter);

  return 0;
}

Create different structure variables

struct myStructure s1;
struct myStructure s2;
// Assign values to different structure variables
s1.myNum = 13;
s1.myLetter = 'B';

s2.myNum = 20;
s2.myLetter = 'C';

Copy structure

struct myStructure s1 = {
  13, 'B', "Some text"
};

struct myStructure s2;
s2 = s1;

In the example, the value of s1 is copied to s2

Modify value

// Create a struct variable and assign it a value
struct myStructure s1 = {
  13, 'B'
};
// modify the value
s1.myNum = 30;
s1.myLetter = 'C';
// print value
printf("%d %c %s",
    s1.myNum,
    s1.myLetter);

file processing

File processing function

function	description Description
`fopen()`	`open` a new or existing file
`fprintf()`	write data to `file`
`fscanf()`	`read` data from a file
`fputc()`	write a character to `file`
`fgetc()`	`read` a character from a file
`fclose()`	`close` the file
`fseek()`	set the file pointer to `the given position`
`fputw()`	Write an integer `to` a file
`fgetw()`	`read` an integer from a file
`ftell()`	returns the current `position`
`rewind()`	set the file pointer to the beginning of the file

There are many functions in the C library to open/read/write/search and close files

Open mode parameter

Mode Mode	Description Description
`r`	Open a text file in `read` mode, allowing the file to be read
`w`	Open a text file in `write` mode, allowing writing to the file
`a`	Open a text file in `append` modeIf the file does not exist, a new one will be created
`r+`	Open a text file in `read-write` mode, allowing reading and writing of the file
`w+`	Open a text file in `read-write` mode, allowing reading and writing of the file
`a+`	Open a text file in `read-write` mode, allowing reading and writing of the file
`rb`	Open a binary file in `read` mode
`wb`	Open binary file in `write` mode
`ab`	Open a binary file in `append` mode
`rb+`	open binary file in `read-write` mode
`wb+`	Open binary file in `read-write` mode
`ab+`	open binary file in `read-write` mode

Open the file: fopen()

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;
  char ch;

  fp = fopen("file_handle.c", "r");

  while (1) {
    ch = fgetc(fp);
    if (ch == EOF)
      break;
    printf("%c", ch);
  }
  fclose(fp);
}

After performing all operations on the file, the file must be closed with fclose()

Write to file: fprintf()

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;
  fp = fopen("file.txt", "w"); // open the file

  // write data to file
  fprintf(fp, "Hello file for fprintf..\n");
  fclose(fp); // close the file
}

Read the file: fscanf()

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;

  char buff[255]; // Create a char array to store file data
  fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");

  while(fscanf(fp, "%s", buff) != EOF) {
    printf("%s ", buff);
  }
  fclose(fp);
}

Write to file: fputc()

#include <stdio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;
  fp = fopen("file1.txt", "w"); // open the file
  fputc('a',fp); // write a single character to the file
  fclose(fp); // close the file
}

Read the file: fgetc()

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;
  char c;

  clrscr();

  fp = fopen("myfile.txt", "r");

  while( (c = fgetc(fp) ) != EOF) {
    printf("%c", c);
  }
  fclose(fp);

  getch();
}

Write to file: fputs()

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;

  clrscr();

  fp = fopen("myfile2.txt","w");
  fputs("hello c programming",fp);
  fclose(fp);

  getch();
}

Read files: fgets()

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;
  char text[300];

  clrscr();

  fp = fopen("myfile2.txt", "r");
  printf("%s", fgets(text, 200, fp));
  fclose(fp);

  getch();
}

fseek()

#include <stdio.h>

void main(void) {
  FILE *fp;

  fp = fopen("myfile.txt","w+");
  fputs("This is Book", fp);

  // Set file pointer to the given position
  fseek(fp, 7, SEEK_SET);

  fputs("Kenny Wong", fp);
  fclose(fp);
}

set the file pointer to the given position

rewind()

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main() {
  FILE *fp;
  char c;

  clrscr();

  fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");

  while( (c = fgetc(fp) ) != EOF) {
    printf("%c", c);
  }

  rewind(fp); // move the file pointer to the beginning of the file

  while( (c = fgetc(fp) ) != EOF) {
    printf("%c", c);
  }
  fclose(fp);

  getch();
}
// output
// Hello World! Hello World!

ftell()

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main () {
   FILE *fp;
   int length;

   clrscr();

   fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");

   fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_END);
   length = ftell(fp); // return current position
   fclose(fp);

   printf("File size: %d bytes", length);

   getch();
}
// output
// file size: 18 bytes